Bunyān-i hunar; justārhā-yi mūzah/dārī, marimmat, bāstānshināsī va tārīkh-i hunar (Foundation of Art; Studies of Museums, Conservation, Archeology and Art History)

The Importance of Sampling Historical Materials and Materials in Archaeology and Related Concepts

10.22034/ciom.2025.2067803.1046
Volume 3, Issue 8 - Serial Number 8
Autumn 2026
Bunyān-i hunar; justārhā-yi mūzah/dārī, marimmat, bāstānshināsī va tārīkh-i hunar (Foundation of Art; Studies of Museums, Conservation, Archeology and Art History)

Document Type : Original Article

Authors

Yasin Sedghi 1
Mohammadamin Emami 2

1 Ph.D. Student in Conservation and Restoration of Historical and Cultural Objects, Tehran University of Art, Tehran, Iran.

2 Professor, Department of Conservation and Archaeometry, Art University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran.

Abstract
Archaeometry, as an interdisciplinary branch, is not limited to the systematic analysis and interpretation of laboratory data from historical artifacts, but rather its scope encompasses all aspects related to the systematic collection of data. In this regard, sampling of historical materials and artifacts is an increasingly important methodological component due to the inherent heterogeneity and structural diversity of artifacts. Diversity in the nature of objects requires a corresponding diversity in extraction techniques and sampling methods.
       Therefore, the sampling implementation protocol is a critical issue, because any error or negligence resulting from insufficient knowledge in this regard can lead to analytical biases, invalidation of scientific results, and ultimately, irreparable damage to the material integrity of the historical monument.Therefore, the present article, with its educational-analytical nature, aims to promote methodological competence among students and researchers, and explains in detail the fundamental importance of sampling in archaeometry and the theoretical principles, key concepts, such as sample size, harvest ability, and describes the operational challenges associated with selecting and extracting representative samples from historical monuments.
Introduction
In recent years, the interdisciplinary field of archaeometry, as a new research paradigm, has witnessed significant prosperity and expansion in Iran; to the extent that the current decade can be considered the "decade of archaeometric studies" or the "decade of attention to archaeological sciences."
       These studies, as a complex and multifaceted process, include a range of continuous tasks, the accuracy of the final output of which depends on strict adherence to methodological principles at all stages. Failure to recognize and neglect any of these stages can lead to deviation from the research path; ultimately, it can lead to the widespread dissemination of erroneous data and invalid conclusions in the field of archaeometry.
    Although performing accurate instrumental analyses on museum artifacts and archaeological finds requires experience, ingenuity, and perseverance in addition to knowledge,

however, the development and adoption of standard methodological arrangements can minimize the process's dependence on non-scientific factors.
       These arrangements include comprehensive planning, adherence to appropriate sampling methods, compliance with high quality standards for materials, professional calibration of equipment, and the allocation of specialized laboratory environments.
       In the meantime, sampling of historical artifacts plays a fundamental and distinctive role, as decisions made at this stage directly affect the quality and presentation of the data produced, the accuracy of subsequent inferences, and even the research policies of other researchers. Therefore, the lack of experience and methodological competence of young researchers in sampling, as a central challenge, requires that this sensitive stage be given deep and serious attention and training.
 
Research Method
This research is of an applied-developmental type and aims to advance methodological knowledge in the field of archaeological sampling. The research approach is descriptive-analytical and is based on a combination of documentary analysis, standards review, and conceptual analysis.
The research method is based on qualitative content analysis and systematic study of sources. The research is conducted by reviewing reliable sources (specialized archaeometry books, national standards, scientific articles, and professional documents), and key concepts related to sampling are extracted, categorized, and analyzed.

Discussion and Conversation
Importance and Definition of Sampling
Sampling is a scientific and artistic process that aims to extract a representative subset of the entire population under study so that analyses based on these samples can be generalized to the entire population. This process requires knowledge, experience, and critical thinking at all stages before, during, and after sampling. Improper sampling can lead to inaccurate results and irreparable damage to historical monuments.
 
Types and Methods of Sampling
The two main methods of sampling in archaeometry are as follows;
·         Selective (purposeful) sampling: It is carried out based on the researcher's expert knowledge of important or damaged parts of the work.
·         Random sampling: This is carried out in such a way that each part of the work has an equal chance of being selected to eliminate researcher bias and ensures sample representativeness.
 
Sampling Plan and Practical Considerations
A sampling plan is a roadmap that specifies details such as the number, location, and time of sample collection. The volume, shape, and number of samples should be determined based on the type of material, the purpose of the study, and ethical constraints; in a way that does not harm the originality and integrity of the work. Larger samples than necessary, especially in intact works, are considered unacceptable and unethical.
 
The Relationship Between Sampling and Analysis
The quality of analytical results is highly dependent on the quality of the sampling. Analysis of historical artifacts falls into three categories:
• Destructive analysis (e.g. petrography), which requires physical sampling and destruction of the sample.
• Semi-destructive analysis, which requires a small amount of sample and is minimally destructive (e.g. FTIR). • Non-destructive analysis, which is performed without sampling or damage to the object and is ideal for museum objects. Non-destructive methods include portable XRF analysis and optical imaging.
 
Ethical and Conservation Considerations
The main criterion for sampling is to preserve the authenticity, health and integrity of historical monuments. Sampling should be carried out at points that cause the least damage to the monument and, if possible, the monuments should be restored after sampling. Destructive sampling is only permitted when no non-destructive or semi-destructive method is applicable, and the scientific results are essential for conservation and restoration.
 
 
 
Difference Between Sampling in Archaeology and Restoration
Sampling in the field of archaeology is usually done on broken or non-museum materials, which is less challenging. While in conservation and restoration, sampling of intact and museum artifacts is much more sensitive and challenging, and a less invasive approach must be followed.
 
Conclusion:
 The importance of sampling in archaeological studies is an evident and obvious principle even if the analysis of samples is carried out with the highest precision. If sampling is not carried out correctly, the entire work done will be devoid of scientific value. This interdependence is two-way; that is, even if sampling is carried out in the best possible way, and in case there is no accuracy in the analysis or the wrong choice of analytical method, all the activities carried out will still be considered futile. Failure to properly understand each step in the sampling and analysis process can lead to errors and mistakes that completely invalidate the research in question. These problems often remain hidden from the researcher's eyes during the process and only become apparent when the final conclusions are drawn. Therefore, a person who conducts research in the field of archaeometry must have complete knowledge of all the stages and history of their sample, because these stages form an irreversible chain. And any mistake at any stage will be detrimental. The seven critical stages in the history of the (irreversible) specimen are as follows:
1) Sampling plan: Developing a comprehensive protocol for the artifact or the historical artifacts in question,


2) Determining the sampling point and location: Accurately selecting the sampling location based on scientific and ethical considerations,
3) Sample collection: Performing the sample extraction operation with appropriate tools and observing minimal intervention,
4) Sample transport to the laboratory: Transporting samples under controlled conditions to maintain sample integrity,
5) Analysis and testing: Performing instrumental and chemical analyses,
6) Sample completion or storage: Managing the remaining sample (complete use or systematic storage),
7) And data conversion: The sample is provided to the researcher in the form of chemical or structural data.

Keywords

Sampling
Historical Monument
Analysis
Archaeometry
Subjects
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